Duce, D. A.Giorgetti, D.Cooper, C. S.Gallop, J. R.Johnson, I. J.Robinson, K.Seelig, C. D.2015-02-152015-02-1519981467-8659https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8659.00286In this paper reference models for visualization systems that have appeared in the literature are surveyed and a new reference model for distributed cooperative visualization developed in the MANICORAL project (funded by the EU Telematics Programme) is described. The relationship of earlier models to the new model is discussed. A number of cooperative visualization systems that have been reported in the literature are compared in the framework of the MANICORAL model.10.1111/1467-8659.00286219-233